1. Present simple
I / we / you / they DO
He / She / It DOES
Things in general:
A) Things that happen repeatedly
B) General true
Nurses look at patients in hospitals
I usually go away at weekends
The earth goes round the sun.
The cafe opens at 8.
C) To say how often we do things
D) Sometimes we do things by saying something:
I promise / I apologise / I advise / I insist / I agree / I refuse
Prislovna določila časa: Often, never, every, always, sometimes, occasionally, usually, generally, hardly ever, rarely, seldom ( redko kdaj ), normally, once a …, twice a …
2. Present continuous
I am
He / She / It is + verb + ing
We / You / They are
Now, at the time of speaking the action is not finished (real present) - Look, he's coming!
1) I am doing something ( I’m in the middle of doing it at the time of speaking ):
I've started doing it and I haven't finished yet – Don't make so much noise. I'm trying to work
2) I am doing something ( I’m in the middle of doing it, but not at the time of speaking ):
I've started doing it and I haven't finished yet – I'm reading a book at the moment, says Daniel at phone.
bližnjo prihodnost ki je vnaprej dogovorjena ( sestanki ). Dodamo prislovna določila časa za prihodnost ( I'm meeting him tomorrow )
nezadovoljstvo zaradi kakšnega ponavljajočega se dejanja + always, constantly, forever, continually ( He's constantly repeating this word )
3) With periods around NOW: today, this week, this year, now, at the moment, at present.
4) When we talk about changes happening around NOW, especially with verbs:
Get change become increase rise fall grow improve begin start
Look in Listen tudi opozarjata na trajajoče dejanje ki poteka v bližini ( Look, he's coming! )
PRESENT SIMPLE in PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Present simple for things in general
for things that happen repeatedly
for permanent situations
Present continuous for things happening at or around the time of speaking
for temporary situations.
I Always do / I'm always doing
I Always do : I do it every time
I'm always doing : I do it very often, perhaps too often, or more often than normal
:
Verbs not used in the present continuous:
Like, love, hate, prefer, need, adore, wish, want, forget, believe, wonder, know, understand, disagree, guess, doubt, know, realise, suppose, mean, remember, belong, fit, contain, consist, seem
See, hear, taste, smell
Look, feel
Glagoli ki označujejo miselna dogajanja:.
Glagoli stanja: seem, contain, cost, belong, sound, owe, own, have, possess.
Nekateri glagoli imajo obe obliki, ampak z različnimi pomeni:
Think: misliti, premišljevati ( -ing about )
Have: tvori Present continuous v besednih zvezah ( I'm having a bath ) ali Present Simple ( I have a brother ).
Glagoli čutnih zaznav tvorijo včasih Present Continuous, pri čemer se spremeni pomen glagoli: feel, see, hear, taste, smell.
3. Past Simple
Pravilo
Preteklik
Označuje:
Dejanje, ki se je zgodilo v točno določeni preteklosti in je zaključeno
opisovanje zaporednih preteklih dejanj in zgodb
izražanje preteklih dejanj in zgodb
Tvorba
Trdilne povedi:
Nedoločnik + -ed ( touched )
Glagoli, ki se končajo na:
soglasnik, kadar pred njim stoji samoglasnik, zadnji samoglasnik podvojijo ( nodded )
t, -p, -d, -m, -r, -l, -b, -g: kadar pred njim stoji samoglasnik, zadnji samoglasnik podvojijo (preferred)
y: kadar pred njim stoji soglasnik, se spremeni v -ie (dry, dried ).
y: kadar pred njim stoji samoglasnik, ostane (play, played ).
Nepravilni glagoli ta čas tvorijo s pomočjo 2. glagolskih oblik ( past tense ).
Nikalne povedi:
didn't + nedoločnik 1. glagolske oblike (didn't sleep)
Vprašalne povedi:
Did + nedoločnik+?
Glagol BE ( WAS, WERE) v pomenu biti: ne uporabimo glagola DID (was he there?)
Vprašalnici WHO in WHAT: ko sta v imenovalniku ( kdo ali kaj ), glagol nima pomožni glagol DID. Zapišemo ga s pomočjo 2. glagolske oblike ( past tense ). Pri pravilnih glagolih dodamo obrazilo –ed,
Prislovna določila časa: yesterday, last, ago, vsi pretekli datumi in letnice, pogosto pa when, where.
4. Past Continuous
Pravilo
Preteklik
Označuje:
Trajajoče dejanje ki je potekalo v določenem obdobju v preteklosti.
Največkrat gre za trajajoče nedovršno dejanje ki ga prekine trenutno dovršno dejanje.
When we got back, they were sitting at the cafe
Tvorba
Trdilne povedi:
Was/were + -ing ( were going )
Nikalne povedi:
Was/were + not + -ing ( were not going )
Vprašalne povedi:
Was/were + you + -ing ( were you going )
Prislovna določila časa: all day yesterday, all morning, all the time, when, while
While/When:
Trenutno dejanje: Past Simple ( dovršeno dejanje v preteklosti )
Trajajoče dejanje: Past Continuous( nedovršeno dejanje v preteklosti )
5. Present Perfect Simple
Pravilo
Preteklik
Označuje:
Dejanje, ki se je zgodilo v nedoločeni preteklosti
Dejanje, ki se je zgodilo v nedavni preteklosti
Dejanje, katerega posledice segajo v sedanjost
Dejanje, ki se je začelo v preteklosti in še vedno traja
Izkušnjo iz preteklosti
She has lived there for six years ( dejanje ni končalo )
Present Perfect: dejanje se je zgodilo nedavno, v nedoločeni preteklosti in je povezano s sedanjostjo.
Past Simple: dejanje se je zgodilo in zaključilo v preteklosti, torej ni povezano s sedanjostjo.
Tvorba
Trdilne povedi:
Have/Has + -ed ( has worked )
Nikalne povedi:
Have/Has + not + -ed ( has not worked )
Vprašalne povedi:
Have/Has + you/he + -ed ( has he/ have you + worked )
Prislovna določila časa: yet, not yet, never, ever, just, already, since, for, lately, recently, once, twice, several times, still, how long, often, up to know, so far, sometimes.
Since: Glavni stavek Present Perfect Simple, ali Continuous, v odvisnem pa Past Simple.
( You've changed since you broke up with her )
Just / Still: nastopata tudi s present continuous.
6. Present Perfect Continuous
Pravilo
Označuje:
Dejanje, ki se je začelo v preteklosti, traja v trenutku govorjenja in bo verjetno trajalo še v prihodnosti.
Ponavljajoče se dejanje, ki je trajalo do sedaj
Dlje časa trajajoče dejanje, ki se je nedavno končalo in ki navaja razlog za neko stanje.
Tvorba
Trdilne povedi:
Have/Has + been + -ing ( has been working )
Nikalne povedi:
Have/Has + not + been + -ing ( has not been working )
Vprašalne povedi:
Have/Has + you/he + been + -ing ( has he been working )
Prislovna določila časa: for, since, how long, lately, recently, for the past / last, all day long ( ista kot v Present Perfect Simple ):
- glagol ki se pojavi v povedi je dovršen ( trenuten ) – Present Perfect Simple
I've finished my work recently
- glagol ki se pojavi v povedi je nezmožen glagolskega časa Continuous - Present Perfect Simple
She's been here since 6 a.m.
- glagol ki se pojavi v povedi je nedovršen ( trajajoč ) nezmožen glagolskega časa Continuous - Present Perfect Continuous
She's been working for him for 7 years.
Pogosto uporabljajo PPC: work, live, study, make, listen, watch, write, wait, talk, rain.
Ne uporabljamo PPC: see, feel, consider, know.
Present Perfect Simple
Present Perfect Continuous
Dejanje je potekalo dalj časa v preteklosti
Če sta časa izmenljiva
Prekinjeno dejanje v preteklosti
Neprekinjeno dejanje v preteklosti
Opisuje rezultat preteklega dejanja
Opisuje osebo in trajanje dejanja
7. Past Perfect Simple
Pravilo
Predpreteklik
Označuje:
Dejanje, ki se je zgodilo v preteklosti pred drugim preteklim dejanjem
After she had lived there, she went to Paris
Tvorba
Trdilne povedi:
Had + 3. glagolska oblika ( had worked ), deležnik preteklea časa
Nikalne povedi:
Had + not + 3. glagolska oblika ( had not worked )
Vprašalne povedi:
Had + you/he + 3. glagolska oblika ( had he/ have you + worked )
Prislovna določila časa: after, as soon as, by the time, before, when.
8. Past Perfect Continuous
Pravilo
Predpreteklik
Označuje:
Trajajoče ali nedovršeno dejanje v predpreteklosti, ki je potekalo pred drugim preteklim dejanjem.
Ponavljanje in razlago preteklih stanj.
Tvorba
Trdilne povedi:
Had + been + -ing ( had been working )
Nikalne povedi:
Had + not + been + -ing ( had not been working )
Vprašalne povedi:
Had + you/he + been + -ing ( had he been working )
Vezniki: after, by the time, before, when
Past Perfect Simple
Past Perfect Continuous
Označuje dovršena (trenutna) dejanja
I had watched the TV before I drank.
Dejanje je potekalo dalj časa v preteklosti
I had been watching the TV before I drank.
Označuje nedovršena (trajajoča) dejanja
Glagoli ki ne morejo tvoriti oblike Continuous, postavimo v Past Perfect Simple
9. Future simple
Pravilo
Prihodnjik
Označuje:
Hitre odločitve ob trenutku govorjenja, brez predhodnega premisleka.
Obljube, prošnje, grožnje, ponudbe
Predvidevanja za prihodnjost
Prihodnja dejanja neodvisna od osebne volje ali namere
Tvorba
Trdilne povedi:
Will + Nedoločnik
I / We : Shall+ Nedoločnik ( zastarela oblika)
Nikalne povedi:
won't+ nedoločnik
Vprašalne povedi:
will + verb ?
Besedne zveze: I think, I know, I'm sure, I doubt, O.K.,don't worry, I promise, I guess, Maybe, perhaps, all right.
10. Going to future
Pravilo
Prihodnjik
Označuje:
Osebkovo trdno namero ali voljo v prihodnosti, ki se bo zagotovo uresničila.
Tvorba
Trdilne povedi:
Going to + Nedoločnik
Nikalne povedi:
Not going to + nedoločnik
Vprašalne povedi:
Are you going to + nedoločnik ?
Present simle, present continius, future simple in going to future v rabi prihodnjika
Present simple (do, does): urniki,prireditve
Present continuous:bližnja prihodnjost, v naprej dogovorjena ( sestanki, srečanja)
Future simple: Hitre odločitve ob trenutku govorjenja, brez predhodnega premisleka. Obljube, prošnje, grožnje, ponudbe. Predvidevanja za prihodnost, neodvisna od osebne volje ali namere.
Going to future: Osebkova namera v prihodnosti in predvidevanje za prihodnost na podlagi izkušenj.
Vezniki in prislovna določila časa za prihodnje čase: soon, next, tomorrow, in.
11. Future continuous
Pravilo
Prihodnjik
Označuje:
Dejanje, ki bo trajalo od določenega trenutka v prihodnosti dalje
Bodoče načrte, stanja, navade ob določenem času v prihodnosti
Glagol mora biti nedovršen ( trajajoč)
Tvorba
Trdilne povedi:
Will + be + -ing
Nikalne povedi:
won't + be + -ing
Vprašalne povedi:
will + be + -ing ?
Tipična prislovna določila časa: In…years' time, this time next…
12. Future perfect simple
Pravilo
Prihodnjik
Označuje:
Kdaj bo dejanje, ki se je začelo v preteklosti dovršeno v prihodnosti.
Določiti moramo časovno točko v prihodnosti ko se bo to dejanje zaključilo.
( I will have finished this project by June 2006.)
Tvorba
Trdilne povedi:
Will + have + -ed
Nikalne povedi:
won't + have + -ed
Vprašalne povedi:
will + have + -ed ?
Tipična prislovna določila časa: by ( next), (not) till/untill
13. Future perfect continuous
Pravilo
Prihodnjik
Označuje:
Dejanje, ki se je začelo v preteklosti in poteka sedaj se bo nadaljevalo še v prihodnosti.
Določiti moramo časovno točko v prihodnosti, in povemo, da se bo nekaj kar se je začelo v preteklosti in traja vso sedanjost, nadaljevalo tudi še v prihodnosti. S tem časom povemo, koliko časa je minilo odkar smo začeli nekaj delati ( to dejanje se še ni zaključilo).
(Next Monday I will have been living in Slovenia for 3 years).
Tvorba
Trdilne povedi:
Will + have + been + -ing
Nikalne povedi:
won't + have + been + -ing
Vprašalne povedi:
will + have + -been + -ing ?
Tipična prislovna določila časa: by this time next…, by the end of ( this) week
Razlike med glagolskimi časi Future continuous, Future perfect simple in Future perfet continuous
Future continuous: določimo časovno točko v prihodnosti in povemo, da bo od takrat dalje potekalo trajajoče dejanje ( She'll be having a shower in the evening)
Future perfect simple: določimo časovno točko v prihodnosti in povemo, da se bo dejanje do te točke do konca izvršilo ali do tedaj in še naprej trajalo. ( She'll have finished her studies by next week.)
Future perfect continuous: Določimo časovno točko v prihodnosti in ugotovimo kako dolgo dejanje, ki se je začelo v preteklosti že traja in kako dolgo bo trajalo do te časovne točke pri čemer se dejanje tudi po tem ne bo zaključilo. ( By this time next year she'll have been skiing for ten years.).
Adverbial clauses of time relating to future and fast
Prihodnost:
Glavni stavek: Future simple.
Odvisni stavek: Present simple ali Present perfect simple
Vezniki: when, as soon as, after, until, till, before, by the time.
When I get back, I'll clean the bathroom.
Za časovnimi vezniki ne smemo uporabljati prihodnika, čeprav se odvisniki nanašajo na prihodnost. Uporabljajmo present simple ali present perfect simple:
By the time you have finished, I'll make a dinner.
Preteklost:
Vezniki: when, while. Tema veznikoma sledi Past simple ( za trenutno dejanje ) in Past continuous ( za trajajoče dejanje )
When I found him, he was hiding behind the door.
While they were having a party, someone fainted.
Vezniku » while » skoraj vedno sledi vsaj en glagol v glagolskem času » past continuous » , razen če glagol ne more tvoriti te oblike.
Pri veznikih: when, after, as soon as, before, by the time
Dejanje ki se je zgodilo prej, v » predpreteklosti » : Past perfect simple
Dejanje ki se je zgodilo potem : Past simple ( trenutno dejanje ) ali Past perfect continuous ( trajajoče dejanje ).
Pri veznikih: as soon as, after
Past perfect simple
V odvisniku v glavnem stavku pa Past Simple
( ima veznik ) Past perfect continuous
As sooon as he had approached the rabbit, it ran away.
After she had been running, she felt exhausted.
Pri veznikih: before, by the time
Past perfect simple
V odvisniku Past Simple v glavnem stavku pa
Past perfect continuous
By the time she ironed the clothes, he had made dinner
Before I talked to him, I had checked all again
By the time we got home, the police had been searching for our father.
Conditional clauses ( If / Unless)
Yes if No
Yes Unless Yes
0 conditional
- Facts or general trues
- Nasveti
If Present simple + Present simple
Condition: IF Present tense / aspect
Result : Present tense / aspect
1 st conditional
- Future
- Consequences of events that always happen or are likely to happen
- Used for a possible condition in the future and its future result.
- You can use: except if , in case
If Present simple + Future simple
90/10: will (certainly, probably, maybe)
50/50: may
45/55: might, could
Can, will be able to, going to.
Condition: IF Present tense / aspect
Result : Future form
2nd conditional
(imaginary)
- Present
- Imagine the consequences of events that are unlikely to happen / can't possibly happen.
- Trenutno obstajajo možnosti za njegovo uresničitev
- If I were you...
- Used for a highly improbable, hypothetical or imaginary condtion in the present or future and its result.
If Past simple + Present conditional ( would + infinitive)
Condition: IF Past tense or subjunctive ( If I were rich )
Result : Would, should, could, might + infinitive
3rd conditional
- Past
- Used for a condition in the past that did not exist / occur, and its result, which also never happened
- Pogoj je neuresničljiv
- Gre za pretekli, neponovljiv dogodek
- Obžalujemo, da ni bilo drugače
- Imagine the consequences of events that happened / didn't happen, o began to happen in the past.
If Past perfect simple / continuous + Past conditional ( would, should, could, might + have + pretekli deležnik/ past participle)
90/10: would have (certainly,probably, maybe).
50/50: may have
45/55: might have, could have
Mixed conditional
- Se nanaša na preteklost
- Pogoj je neuresničen v preteklosti, posledice so v sedanjosti
- Most usually but not always they describe a condition in the past and a result in the present.
If Past perfect simple / continuous + Present conditional ( would, should, could, might + infinitive)
I wish ... / I would
- I wish I would: uporabljeno ko želimo da bi se nekdo v bodoče drugače vedel ali da bi nekaj naredil oziroma da bi se nekaj zgodilo.
I wish they would stop talking. They're talking all the time.
- ( I wish / If only ) + Past simple / Past continuous: izražajo našo željo po spremembi naše situacije. V prvotni povedi uporabimo sedanjik ( Present simple ali present continuous ), v » I wish » povedi pa se pomaknemo za en glagolski čas nazaj.
She isn't a doctor. I wish she was a doctor.
They're not waiting for us now. I wish they were waiting for us now.
Lahko uporabimo could namesto would.
- ( I wish / If only ) + Past perfect simple / Past perfect continuous: izražajo našo željo po spremembi dejanja, ki se je že zgodilo in na katerega ne moremo več vplivati. V prvotni povedi uporabimo » Past simple » ali » Past Continuous », povedek pa pomaknemo za en glagolski čas nazaj.
She had an accident. I wish she hadn't had an accident.
He was driving my car. I wish he hadn't been driving a car.
I couldn't see anything. I wish I could have seen something.
- Lahko se uporablja:
I wish I had a sister.
I wished I had a sister.
Passive voice
Present simple
am / is / are + deležnik preteklega časa ( 3. glagolska oblika )
He builds houses
Houses are built by him.
Present continuous
am / is / are + being deležnik preteklega časa ( 3. glagolska oblika )
He is building a house
A house is being built by him
Past Perfect
was / were + deležnik preteklega časa ( 3. glagolska oblika )
He built a house
A House was built by him
Past Continuous
was / were + being + deležnik preteklega časa ( 3. glagolska oblika )
He was building a house
A house was being built by him
Present Perfect Simple
have / has + been + deležnik preteklega časa ( 3. glagolska oblika )
He has built a house
A house has been built by him
Past Perfect Simple
had + been + deležnik preteklega časa ( 3. glagolska oblika )
He had built a house
A House had been built by him
Future Simple
will + be + deležnik preteklega časa ( 3. glagolska oblika )
He will build a house
A House will be built by him
Going to future
am / is / are + going + to + be + deležnik preteklega časa ( 3.glagolska oblika )
He is going to built a house
A House is going to be built
- trpnik z modalnimi glagoli: can, could, must, have to, would, shall, should, be able to, need, may, might
V novi povedi ostane modalni glagol na istem mestu in v istem času. Za njim nastopita pomožni glagol be ( v nedoločniku), ter polnopomenski glagol v deležniku preteklega časa ( tretji obliki glagola).
He could build a house.
A house could be built by him.
You must build a house.
A house must be built by you.
Trpnik v povedih z dvema predmetoma:
I offered him my help.
He was offered my help. ALI
My help was offered to him.
Indirect questions
I wonder
Sprašujem se...
I want to know
Rad bi vedel
I don't know
Ne vem
I'm not sure
Nisem prepričan
Can / Could you tell me...
Mi lahko poveš /bi mi laho povedal
I've no idea
Pojma nimam
I couldn't hear
Nisem mogel slišati o tem
I'd love / I like to know
Rad bi vedel...
I haven't got clue
Pojma nimam / ničesar ne vem
Would you mind telling
Bi mi lahko povedal
Does anybody know
Ali kdo ve
Besedni red v vprašalnih povedih
Osebek + povedek + predmet + prislovno določilo
How much does he earn a year?
Why didn't you take an umbrella?
Reported Speech
Glagole v odvisnikih pomaknemo za en čas nazaj, če je uvodni glagol v uvodnem stavku v glagolskem času Past simple.
Glagole v odvisnikih ne spremenimo, če je uvodni glagol v uvodnem stavku v sedanjiku, prihodnjiku ali glagolskem času Present Perfect.
He always says: I'm bad at school
He says that he's bad at school.
She will say: I want to know everything
She will say she wants to know everything.
She have just asked: Is anyone here?
She have just asked me if anyone is here.
He asked: Is this your brother?
He asked if that was my brother.
V nekaterih povedih ne spremenimo glagolskih časov, čeprav je uvodnik postavljen preteklik:
- Splošno veljavno resnico
Lakes often freeze in winter.
He said lakes often freeze in winter.
- Nekaj kar se bo zgodilo in pri tem imamo dve možnosti
He said: I'm flying tomorrow.
He said that he is flying tomorrow.
He said he was flying the following day.
- Navado
He said: I always have a shower before sleeping.
He said that he always has a shower before sleeping.
Past
Present
Future
Simple
LOVED
WOULD
LOVES
WILL LOVE
Continuous
WAS LOVING
WOULD
IS LOVING
WILL BE LOVING
Perfect Simple
HAD LOVED
WOULD
HAS LOVED
WILL HAVE LOVED
Perfect Continuous
HAD BEEN LOVING
WOULD
HAS BEEN LOVING
WILL HAVE BEEN LOVING
· If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense of the actual spoken words usually moves one tense back in the reported version.
· The change in tense does not happen if what was said still remain true.
SHALL
SHOULD
MUST
HAD TO
HAVE TO
HAD TO
CAN
COULD
MAY
MIGHT
HERE
THERE
TOMORROW
THE NEXT / THE FOLLOWING DAY
YESTERDAY
THE DAY BEFORE / THE PREVIOUS DAY
TODAY
THAT DAY
TONIGHT
THAT NIGHT
THIS MORNING
THAT MORNING
NEXT ...
THE FOLLOWING ...
LAST...
THE PREVIOUS .../ ...BEFORE
AGO
BEFORE / PREVIOUSLY
THE DAY AFTER TOMORROW
IN TWO DAYS TIME
NOW
THEN
THIS
THAT
THESE
THOSE
SAY TO
TELL
Vrste povedi v odvisnem govoru
A Pripovedne: V odvisniku postavimo en glagolski čas nazaj.
She said: I' m reading.
She said that she was reading.
B Velelne: Ne spreminjamo glagolskih časov. Odvisnik uvedemo s » to » in z nedoločnikom, kadar gre za zapoved, ali z »not to« in nedoločnikom , kadar gre za prepoved.
He said:Dont cry
He said me not to cry.
Če gre za lažjo zapoved / prepoved, lahko uporabimo glagol should in nedoločnik.
He said: Dont drink tea
He told me I sould not drink tea.
C Vprašalne:
D Prošnje, ponudbe, povabila:
Lexical Phrases
break a journey
make a recovery ( from illness )
give someone a ring ( phone )
speak a language
break someone's heart
make ends meet
give someone the sack
spend energy
bring something to a standstill
paralizar
make enquiries into something
go ahead
spend time + verb + ing
bring yourself to do something
inducir
make it ( to the top )
go cycling
take a chance
change a wheel
make ( a ) noise
go downhill
take a look at
change your mind
make sure
go mad
take a photograph
come true
make your mind up
go to the trouble to do something
take a test
cost the lives ( of people )
pass an exam
go to waste
take action
do a course in a subject
play a part in
go wrong
take care to do sth
do an experiment on
play a trick on
have something for breakfast
take measures
do damage to
play for a team
have a break
take part in
do harm to someone
play music
have a little choice
take place
do research into
play squash
have a day off ( work )
take someone to one side
do the trick
play the guitar
have a degree
take something seriously
do well
play the part
have a flair for
instinct
take steps to do something
fall in love with
put right
have a good time
take time
find work
reach a conclusion
have a good view of
take time off
get hold of
run a business
have a baby
keep going
get into an argument
run the risk of + verb + ing
have fun
keep hold of
get married
see the funny side of something
have no idea about something
lay a finger on someone
get someone into trouble
set a bad example
have objections to
lose control
get something under way
set fire
have something in common
lose touch with
get time off
set free
have stitches
punto de sutura
lose your temper
give birth
set light to
keep a straight face
make a difference
keep fit
make a profit
Prepositional phrases
in the lime light
at 10
in the middle of
at a fast rate
In the morning
at all times
in the street
at any rate
in the summer of 1990
at the same time
in their teens
at a speed of 29 kph
in these circumstances
at lunchtime
in these way
at my desk
in three days' time
at one point
in (serious) trouble
at public expense
an improvement in
at risk from
bear in mind
at the age of
interested in
at the beach
man in the street
at the beginning
one in ten
at the cost of
trick someone in to doing something
at the end
of course
at the end of the day
terrified of
at the foot ( bottom ) of the page
on average
at the front
on balance
at the same time
on fire
At the moment
at their feet
on Friday morning
shout at someone
on my own
throw something at someone
on that date
By rail / by train
on the line
by the time
on the market
for ages
On the pavement
for a moment / couple of minutes
on the phone
for example
on the right track
for goodness sake
On the save side
For some reason
on the screen
for the better
on the tip of my tongue
a bed for the night
on the whole
ask for trouble
on tiptoe
perfect for + verb + ing
On the Equator
responsible for
On the one hand
jump for joy
on the other hand
value for money
on the top
from my point of view
on the train
from the word go
on the way (to work)
from time to time
on top of that
in 1944
on your side
in addition to this
an attack on someone
in an emergency
based on
in business
to dawn on someone
in charge of
keen on
in contrast
out of place
in control
out of sight
in general
out of this world
in his late seventies
over a period of time
in March
over the age of 21
in my ( early ) thirties
over the centuries
in my experiance
(all) over the world
in my heart
To my surprise
In my opinion
allergic to
in my own time
harmful to
In my situation
thanks to
in my view
under (the same) condition
in opposite direction
under thread
in public places
until March
in short
compete with
in space
Co-operate with
in the 1960s
deal with
in the 21th century
familiar with
in the end
nothing to do with someone
in the first place
replace something with something else
in the front row
In the light of
Other expressions
a close shave
It's up to me
a high price to pay for something
It's worth + verb + ing
a near thing
might as well
above all
none the worse
as far as ( person ) is concerned
safe and well
I can't be bothered
short of breath
I can't do a thing about this
sick to death
I can't wait
someone my own age
I suppose so
the other day
I'l get it ( phone )
the wider world
It's a shame
there's no doubt about it
It's hard to say
there's no point + verb + ing
It's not my fault
there's nothing you can do
It's me ( phone )
these days
It's not like him
this time next week
It's not surprising
with minutes to spare
Sentence starters
All being well
if you ask me
Another advantage is
it doesn't matter where ( what / where / when / who )
Anyway
it seems likely that
as a general rule
let's face it
as far as I can see
not knowing what else to do
as far as I can remember
one important thing is
as it was
that's not the end of the story
at any rate
the funny thing is
at the same time
the problem is / was
believe it or not
the thing is
everyone knows that
the trouble is
given the circumstances
what gets me is
when it comes to it
Irregular verbs
Infinitive
Past simple
Past participle
Infinitive
Past simple
Past participle
can
could
been able to
shake
shook
shaken
deal
dealt
dealt
shine
shone
shone
dig
dug
dug
slide
slid
slid
fight
fought
fought
spread
spread
spread
forbide
forbade
forbidden
stick
stuck
stuck
kneel
knelt
knelt
sting
stung
stung
lay
laid
laid
strike
struck
struck
lead
led
led
sweep
swept
swept
lie
lay
lain
swell
swelled
swelled
run
ran
run
tear
tore
torn
wind
wound
wound
Phrasal Verbs
account for
vedeti kje je
add up
imajo smisel
blow up
Povečati
break down
Pokvariti
break out
nenadno začne, escape
break up
prekiniti šolo, raztreščiti
bring problems on oneself
nositi odgovornost
bring about
make sth happen
bring back
Memories
bring in
new law
bring out
produce new book
bring someone round
Ozavestiti
bring up
vzgajati in paziti otroka
bring up on
HABITUAL ACTIONS
IN THE PRESENT
· USUALLY, ALWAYS USED
· PERMANENT SITUATIONS
DO
· USUAL ACTIONS
· GENERALLY OCURRING ACTIONS
TEND TO + INFINITIVE.
· REPEATED AND ANNOYING, IRRITATING
· AS WILL BUT STRONGER
· WITH ALWAYS, FOREVER, CONSTANTLY.
IS + ING + always
· BEHAVIOUR OF 1 PERSON
· HABITS / CHARACTERISTICS
WILL + INFINITIVE
· ACCIDENTAL & ANNOYING
KEEP + -ING
IN THE PAST
· USUALLY USED
· PERMANENT SITUATIONS
DID + frequency expression
· HABITUAL ACTIONS WHICH NO LONGER HAPPEN
USED TO + INFINITIVE. + frequency expression
WAS +-ING
· HABITUAL PAST ACTIONS
( only affirmative )
WAS +-ING
WOULD + INFINITIVE
Used to: For habitual actions and states
Would: For actions, not states
WILL: FOR REGULAR ACTIONS THAT WE CAN EXPECT BECAUSE WE KNOW HOW THEY ACT. NOT USED WITH VERBS OF STATE ( BE, KNOW, BELIEVE,LIKE ). WITH THIS MEANING, REFERS TO GENERAL TIME, NOT FUTURE.
WOULD: želel
SHOULD: bi moral
USED TO
USED TO + INFINITIVE
HABITUAL PAST ACTIONS
TO BE USED TO + -ING
TO BE ACCUSTOMED TO
TO GET USED TO + -ING
TO BECOME ACCUSTOMED TO
PAST, PRESENT, FUTURE
PAST
· Finished in the past
DID
Simple past
· Continuous event in the past, now finished or not
· Temporary event in the past which was in progress before another
· Event started before another and continued
· Simultaneous in the past
· Repeated actions in the past
WAS + -ING
Past continuous
· EVENT STARTED BEFORE ANOTHER
HAD –ED
Past perfect
· EMPHASIZE CONTINUITY AND DURATION ( before )
HAD BEEN –ING
Past perfect continuous
· STARTED IN PAST, CONTINUES NOW AND MAY CONTINUES IN FUTURE
· RECENT PAST WITH RELEVANCES TO THE PRESENT
· PAST WITHOUT SAYING WHEN
· PAST, IN AN UNFINISHED PERIOD OF TIME
HAVE BEEN –ED
Present perfect
· EMPHASIZE CONTINUITY AND DURATION ( or Present pefect )
· CONTINUOUS ACTIVITY IN THE RECENT PAST WITH RELEVANCES TO THE PRESENT
Have been –ing
Present perfect continuous
FUTURE
· arrangements
Is + -ing ( + always )
Present continuous
· facts
· predictions of something seen as certain
· intentions
· instant decisions
· promises, suggestions, offers
will + infinitive
will + be + -ing
will + have + past participle
· action already completed by a future point in time
will + have + past participle
· in progress in a specific time in future
· simultaneity of two on-going future actions
will + be + -ing
Future continuous
· completed in a specific time in future
· continuous nature of actions in the future
· duration of an incomplete action up to a future point in time
will + have + been + -ing
Future perfect continuous
· intentions / plans, not yet arranged
· predictions based on present strong evidence or acknowledgement, or because it ia already beginning
· inevitable future events
going to + infinitive
· fixed events, scheduled events
do
· possible plan with some indication of degree of probability
· prediction of something seen as uncertain, with some indication of degree of probability.
Might ( lower probability than may )/ may
· immediate future
to be about to + infinitive
to be on the point of + infinitive
Will is not used in a clause following a time conjunction:
when - if - until - before - after - while - by the time
In an informal conversation going to
In a formal writing / conversation will is used
Shall offers / suggestions
Promise / offer / suggestions not going to
Might lower probability than may
For the past:
I wish you wouldn’t do that : have a voluntary control over the action
I wish you didn’t do that : doesn’t have a voluntary control over the action
Unreal past may also involve back spacing similar to that in reported speech:
- in constructions with IF ONLY/I WISH…: Present simple/continuous change to their Past Perfect forms
- the 2nd conditional becomes the third conditional
- There is not back spacing with it’s time… or… would rather… Past forms do not become past perfect forms: I’d rather people came to me for advice than banned me.
Simple past
- Referring to future: when indicate an imaginary or hypothetical situation:
o I wish I knew a good place to do shopping
o Supermarkets would rather you paid for your shopping with a credit card
o It’s about time you pulled your socks up and did some work
o If you saw somebody escaping, what would you do
o If only we had a bigger bag
Articles and quantifiers
Countables
Uncountables
A / an, the car
Cars
some cars
· some petrol
· some furniture
· information
· weather
· advice
· hair
· progress
· some good news
Singular
Usually needs an article
· a piece of good news
· three cups of water
Verb
· The news is good
· The weather was awful
Quantifiers
few
fewer
the fewest
many ( with plural )
less
the least
little
much
· Plural and uncountables: need a definite or Zero Ф article.
· Singular and countable nouns: need a/an, if they are mentioned for the first time and is unknown to the listener / reader. If they are mentioned for the second time, we use the.
· Plural and uncountable nouns: need some, if they are mentioned for the first time and is unknown to the listener / reader. If they are mentioned for the second time, we use the.
the
- For unique things ( sun )
- when it's obvious which one I mean or if they were mentioned for the second time and is unknown to the listener / reader
- for particular persons or things, if we are giving extra information to make it clear which specific thing we are talking about ( the books on the table )
- oceans, sea, rivers
- plural mountain groups, island groups, countries
- hotels, cinemas, thetres, museums
- play the piano ( unless is known instrument )
a / an
- single thing or person
- profesions or jobs
- generalisations, unless we're talking about a specific thing
- for singular / countable nouns: if they are menthioned for the first time and is unknown to the listener / reader.
Zero Ф
- generalisations about plural ideas, people or things ( mother loves her children = any mother )
- referring to concepts / ideas that are uncountables ( shopping, freedom, knowledge, pollution, liberty, democracy, history, music, tennis, stamp-collecting, watching television, swimming
- places used for their main purpose
- planets, continents, states, countries
- languages
- mountains and lakes
- streets, roads, squares
- parks, stations, public buildings
Comparing and contrasting
People in Italy live longer than anywhere else in the world.
There are more retired people in Italy than anywhere else in the world.
Italy has the oldest population in the world.
Far more people live to retirement in Britain than in the Phillipines.
Not as many people live to retirement in the Phillipines as in Britain.
There are about the same number of old people in Australia as in the USA.
The number of old people in Australia is similar to the number in he USA.
There are not as many old people in Mexico as in Japan.
There are fewer old people in Mexico than in Japan.
The population of France is less youthful than the population of Brazil.
The population of France is not as young as the population of Brazil.
There are about twice as many retired people in the USA as in Brazil.
There are about half as many retired people in Brazil as in the USA.
Spain has the second oldest population in the world now.
Throughout the world, people live much longer nowadays than they used to.
The number of old people in China is nothing like as high as in Sweden.
Use of infinitive and -ing
- ing
- as subject
- always after prepositions:
o interested in going
o looking forward to going
o get used to drinking
o after eating…
- Most adjectives are followed with the infinitive:
o Pleased, glad, surprised, disappointed, relieved, shocked, interesting, kind, hard, essential, difficult, easy.
- but many common adjectives are followed by a preposition + -ing
o afraid of
o interested in
o sorry about
o good at
o capable of
o famous for
o fond of
- To is used in the structures too…to… and enough… to…
o The eggs are easy enough to cook
o The tray was too heavy for me to carry
- Verbs followed by –ing
o Avoid
o Can’t help
o Delay
o Dislike
o Don’t mind
o Enjoy
o Finish
o Give up
o Go on
o Practise
- Verbs followed by –ing
o Afford
o Agree
o Allow
o Choose
o Decide
o Encourage
o Expect
o Forget
o Tell someone
o Hope
o Learn
o Manage
o Mean
o Need
o Offer
o Persuade
o Pretend
o Promise
o Recommend
o Refuse
o Teach
o Train
o Try
o Want
o Would like
- Verbs followed by –ing or to without changing of meanings
o Begin
o Continue
o Intend
o Hate
o Like
o Love
o Prefer
o Start
- Stop and remember
o Stop making noise ( don’t continue )
o We stopped to eat ( in order to )
o Remember to buy ( not forget )
o I remember you asking me ( I have a clear memory of it )
Continuous verb forms
Example
Meaning
Form
Simple form
… seems …
State / fact
Verb ( +s)
Continuous form
… are disappearing…
… is coming soon
… was growing up …
… are always trying …
Gradual change in progress
Definitive plan form future
Development in progress at point in the past
Repeated habit which is strange or annoying
Be + verb + ing
Be + verb + -ing
Be ( in past ) + verb + -ing
Be + always + verb + -ing
Future continuous
… will be wearing …
Action in progress at point in the future
Wil + be + verb + -ing
Continuous infinitive
… seem to be speaking …
In progress at a particular time
(to) + be + verb + -ing
Continuous passive
… are being pulled down …
Action in progress at present with emphasis on action rather than agent
Be + being + past participle
Present perfect continuous
… have been taking …
Looking back at action in progress that is incomplete
Have + been + verb + -ing
Compare the following examples in terms of meaning:
Everywhere you go nowadays people seem to be speaking English.
Everywhere you go nowadays people seem to speak English.
Many experts are worried because so many languages in the world are disappearing.
Many experts are worried because so many languages in the world disappear.
Old buildings are being pulled down and replaced by ugly new ones.
Old buildings are pulled down and replaced by ugly new ones.
Beijing may well be changing faster than any other city on earth.
Beijing may well be change faster than any other city on earth.
Recently the government have been taking measures to preserve the local way of life.
Recently the government have taken measures to preserve the local way of life.
Conjunctions
To give extra information:
· and,
· as well as, in addition to,
· In addition, furthermore, moreover, also, what’s more
To express contrast:
· but
· although, however, even though, though, despite / in spite of the fact that ( but not even if ),
· despite, in spite of,
· whereas, while,
· however, yet,
To express purpose:
· in order to, to get, so as to get, so that he could get,
· so as not to, in order not to ( and not to not )
To express result:
· so,
· as a result, consequently, therefore, hence, thus ( last 3 formal )
To express reason:
· because of, as a result of, due to, owing to
Relative clauses
Pronoun / adverb
Person
Thing
Place
Formal only
Whom
√
√
Whose
√
√
√
That
√
√
√
Which
√
√
Who
√
Where
√
That : in speech
For which : formal
Defining relative clauses : se nanaša na cel stavek , Ø , who/which/that
Non defining relative clauses: extra information , with commas , who/which/where not replaced with that
The students, who loved their teacher, bought her a present.
Everyone bought the present and the NDRC, as extra information, tell us they also loved their teacher.
The students who loved their teacher bought her a present.
DRC, not everyone bought the present. Here is specified who did.
Silent letters
Wr… Kn… ...mb …st(+le/en) Sc(+e/i) …mm …bt Gu(+a/e/i)… …ght …scle …gn …alm (ps…) (…alf) (…alk) (h…) (gn..)
Some and any
ANY
SOME
A part or the hole
When we’re talking about all of the things or the whole of the things being referred to
When we’re talking about a limited number of the things or part of the thing being referred to, we use any with a negative meaning
Choice
When we’re talking about an unlimited choice from a selection of things , or we are excluding choice.
To emphasize that the choice is limited
In questions
If the existence what we’re referring to is in doubt
When something obviously exists
Expected answers
In questions and offers, if we don’t expect the answer yes
In questions and offers, if we expect the answer yes. We use some rather than any in requests.
I’m not very keen on any / some Classical music
Have you got any / some old text books you could let us have ( any: I’m not sure if you have any, or that you will give them to us, some: I’m fairly sure you’ve got some that you’ll give to us )
Did you want any / some old extra homework ( any: I really do’t know, some I suspect you probably did )
Sorry, I can’t help you – I don’t have any / some information on that ( the information is wholly absent )
I’ve got to have any / some money for the school trip (= limited amount )
If you don+t believe me, ask any / some school kid
He never answers any / some questions in a way we can understand
The art teacher adores any / some modern architecture ( any = all, some=only)
Shouldn’t there be any / some instructions? (= I’m sure of their existence)
Pass me any / some of the drawing pins ( = I’m sure of their existence, I expect the answer is yes )
Participles
a) present participle: Used to form a continuous aspect –
b) past participle: Used to form:
- Perfect aspect -
- Passive constructions –
c) as adjectives:
d) to give information about the object of the sentence, especially verbs of sense ( see, hear, smell ) -
e) to make adverbial clauses ( why, when, how) -
f) Perfect participles can be active or passive ( why, when) -
Twisting a coat-hanger into the keyhole, he opened the door – a,e3
Being surrounded, she hid the drug – ab, f2
Before leaving, they always switch it – a,e2
Having broken into the vault, they began to remove the gold – f1, e2
Having been robbed, she alwys avoided that street – f2, e1
English verbs have two participles. One, called variously the present, active, imperfect, or progressive participle, is identical to the gerund, and indeed the term present participle is sometimes used to include the gerund; the other, called variously the past, passive, or perfect participle, is usually identical to the verb's preterite (past tense) form, though in irregular verbs the two usually differ. Examples of participle formation include:
talk: talking and talked (regular)
do: doing and done (irregular)
say: saying and said (irregular)
eat: eating and eaten (irregular)
In the case of eaten, the participle is different from the past-tense form, ate. Other examples of this include written as opposed to wrote, beaten as opposed to beat, etc.
The present participle in English is an active participle. It has the following uses:
forming the progressive aspect: Jim was sleeping.
modifying a noun: Let sleeping dogs lie.
modifying a verb or sentence: Broadly speaking, the project was successful.
functioning as a noun (see gerund): Your job description does not include sleeping past noon.
The past participle has both active and passive uses:
forming the perfect aspect: The chicken has eaten.
forming the passive voice: The chicken was eaten.
modifying a noun, active sense (certain intransitive verbs only): our fallen comrades
modifying a noun, passive sense: the attached files
modifying a verb or sentence, passive sense: Seen from this perspective, there is no easy solution.
As noun-modifiers, participles usually precede the noun (like adjectives), but in many cases they can or must follow it:
Please bring all the documents required.
The difficulties encountered were nearly insurmountable.
